Forest Cover Type
Ayonija
FOREST COVER TYPE DATA
To predict the forest cover type (the predominant kind of tree cover) from cartographic variables.
The study area includes four wilderness areas located in the Roosevelt National Forest of northern Colorado. Each observation is a 30m x 30m patch. This project focuses to predict an integer classification for the forest cover type.
The seven types are: 1 - Spruce/Fir 2 - Lodgepole Pine 3 - Ponderosa Pine 4 - Cottonwood/Willow 5 - Aspen 6 - Douglas-fir 7 - Krummholz
While forests have great value to society by providing clean water, fresh air, carbon storage and timber, predicting the forest type will help us provide better solutions for environmental and economical growth of society. Abstracting data and observing it!! ====
forest=read.csv("C:/Users/HP/Documents/lets start/SEM 5/MACHINE LEARNING/forest-cover-type-kernels-only/train.csv")
names(forest)## [1] "Id"
## [2] "Cover_Type"
## [3] "Elevation"
## [4] "Aspect"
## [5] "Slope"
## [6] "Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology"
## [7] "Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology"
## [8] "Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways"
## [9] "Hillshade_9am"
## [10] "Hillshade_Noon"
## [11] "Hillshade_3pm"
## [12] "Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points"
## [13] "Wilderness_Area1"
## [14] "Wilderness_Area2"
## [15] "Wilderness_Area3"
## [16] "Wilderness_Area4"
## [17] "Soil_Type1"
## [18] "Soil_Type2"
## [19] "Soil_Type3"
## [20] "Soil_Type4"
## [21] "Soil_Type5"
## [22] "Soil_Type6"
## [23] "Soil_Type7"
## [24] "Soil_Type8"
## [25] "Soil_Type9"
## [26] "Soil_Type10"
## [27] "Soil_Type11"
## [28] "Soil_Type12"
## [29] "Soil_Type13"
## [30] "Soil_Type14"
## [31] "Soil_Type15"
## [32] "Soil_Type16"
## [33] "Soil_Type17"
## [34] "Soil_Type18"
## [35] "Soil_Type19"
## [36] "Soil_Type20"
## [37] "Soil_Type21"
## [38] "Soil_Type22"
## [39] "Soil_Type23"
## [40] "Soil_Type24"
## [41] "Soil_Type25"
## [42] "Soil_Type26"
## [43] "Soil_Type27"
## [44] "Soil_Type28"
## [45] "Soil_Type29"
## [46] "Soil_Type30"
## [47] "Soil_Type31"
## [48] "Soil_Type32"
## [49] "Soil_Type33"
## [50] "Soil_Type34"
## [51] "Soil_Type35"
## [52] "Soil_Type36"
## [53] "Soil_Type37"
## [54] "Soil_Type38"
## [55] "Soil_Type39"
## [56] "Soil_Type40"dim(forest)## [1] 15120 56class(forest)## [1] "data.frame"summary(forest)## Id Cover_Type Elevation Aspect
## Min. : 1 Min. :1 Min. :1863 Min. : 0.0
## 1st Qu.: 3781 1st Qu.:2 1st Qu.:2376 1st Qu.: 65.0
## Median : 7560 Median :4 Median :2752 Median :126.0
## Mean : 7560 Mean :4 Mean :2749 Mean :156.7
## 3rd Qu.:11340 3rd Qu.:6 3rd Qu.:3104 3rd Qu.:261.0
## Max. :15120 Max. :7 Max. :3849 Max. :360.0
## Slope Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology
## Min. : 0.0 Min. : 0.0
## 1st Qu.:10.0 1st Qu.: 67.0
## Median :15.0 Median : 180.0
## Mean :16.5 Mean : 227.2
## 3rd Qu.:22.0 3rd Qu.: 330.0
## Max. :52.0 Max. :1343.0
## Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways
## Min. :-146.00 Min. : 0
## 1st Qu.: 5.00 1st Qu.: 764
## Median : 32.00 Median :1316
## Mean : 51.08 Mean :1714
## 3rd Qu.: 79.00 3rd Qu.:2270
## Max. : 554.00 Max. :6890
## Hillshade_9am Hillshade_Noon Hillshade_3pm
## Min. : 0.0 Min. : 99 Min. : 0.0
## 1st Qu.:196.0 1st Qu.:207 1st Qu.:106.0
## Median :220.0 Median :223 Median :138.0
## Mean :212.7 Mean :219 Mean :135.1
## 3rd Qu.:235.0 3rd Qu.:235 3rd Qu.:167.0
## Max. :254.0 Max. :254 Max. :248.0
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points Wilderness_Area1 Wilderness_Area2
## Min. : 0 Min. :0.0000 Min. :0.000
## 1st Qu.: 730 1st Qu.:0.0000 1st Qu.:0.000
## Median :1256 Median :0.0000 Median :0.000
## Mean :1511 Mean :0.2379 Mean :0.033
## 3rd Qu.:1988 3rd Qu.:0.0000 3rd Qu.:0.000
## Max. :6993 Max. :1.0000 Max. :1.000
## Wilderness_Area3 Wilderness_Area4 Soil_Type1 Soil_Type2
## Min. :0.0000 Min. :0.0000 Min. :0.00000 Min. :0.0000
## 1st Qu.:0.0000 1st Qu.:0.0000 1st Qu.:0.00000 1st Qu.:0.0000
## Median :0.0000 Median :0.0000 Median :0.00000 Median :0.0000
## Mean :0.4199 Mean :0.3092 Mean :0.02348 Mean :0.0412
## 3rd Qu.:1.0000 3rd Qu.:1.0000 3rd Qu.:0.00000 3rd Qu.:0.0000
## Max. :1.0000 Max. :1.0000 Max. :1.00000 Max. :1.0000
## Soil_Type3 Soil_Type4 Soil_Type5 Soil_Type6
## Min. :0.00000 Min. :0.00000 Min. :0.00000 Min. :0.00000
## 1st Qu.:0.00000 1st Qu.:0.00000 1st Qu.:0.00000 1st Qu.:0.00000
## Median :0.00000 Median :0.00000 Median :0.00000 Median :0.00000
## Mean :0.06362 Mean :0.05575 Mean :0.01091 Mean :0.04299
## 3rd Qu.:0.00000 3rd Qu.:0.00000 3rd Qu.:0.00000 3rd Qu.:0.00000
## Max. :1.00000 Max. :1.00000 Max. :1.00000 Max. :1.00000
## Soil_Type7 Soil_Type8 Soil_Type9 Soil_Type10
## Min. :0 Min. :0.00e+00 Min. :0.0000000 Min. :0.0000
## 1st Qu.:0 1st Qu.:0.00e+00 1st Qu.:0.0000000 1st Qu.:0.0000
## Median :0 Median :0.00e+00 Median :0.0000000 Median :0.0000
## Mean :0 Mean :6.61e-05 Mean :0.0006614 Mean :0.1417
## 3rd Qu.:0 3rd Qu.:0.00e+00 3rd Qu.:0.0000000 3rd Qu.:0.0000
## Max. :0 Max. :1.00e+00 Max. :1.0000000 Max. :1.0000
## Soil_Type11 Soil_Type12 Soil_Type13 Soil_Type14
## Min. :0.00000 Min. :0.00000 Min. :0.00000 Min. :0.00000
## 1st Qu.:0.00000 1st Qu.:0.00000 1st Qu.:0.00000 1st Qu.:0.00000
## Median :0.00000 Median :0.00000 Median :0.00000 Median :0.00000
## Mean :0.02685 Mean :0.01501 Mean :0.03148 Mean :0.01118
## 3rd Qu.:0.00000 3rd Qu.:0.00000 3rd Qu.:0.00000 3rd Qu.:0.00000
## Max. :1.00000 Max. :1.00000 Max. :1.00000 Max. :1.00000
## Soil_Type15 Soil_Type16 Soil_Type17 Soil_Type18
## Min. :0 Min. :0.00000 Min. :0.00000 Min. :0.000000
## 1st Qu.:0 1st Qu.:0.00000 1st Qu.:0.00000 1st Qu.:0.000000
## Median :0 Median :0.00000 Median :0.00000 Median :0.000000
## Mean :0 Mean :0.00754 Mean :0.04048 Mean :0.003968
## 3rd Qu.:0 3rd Qu.:0.00000 3rd Qu.:0.00000 3rd Qu.:0.000000
## Max. :0 Max. :1.00000 Max. :1.00000 Max. :1.000000
## Soil_Type19 Soil_Type20 Soil_Type21
## Min. :0.000000 Min. :0.000000 Min. :0.000000
## 1st Qu.:0.000000 1st Qu.:0.000000 1st Qu.:0.000000
## Median :0.000000 Median :0.000000 Median :0.000000
## Mean :0.003042 Mean :0.009193 Mean :0.001058
## 3rd Qu.:0.000000 3rd Qu.:0.000000 3rd Qu.:0.000000
## Max. :1.000000 Max. :1.000000 Max. :1.000000
## Soil_Type22 Soil_Type23 Soil_Type24 Soil_Type25
## Min. :0.00000 Min. :0.00000 Min. :0.000 Min. :0.00e+00
## 1st Qu.:0.00000 1st Qu.:0.00000 1st Qu.:0.000 1st Qu.:0.00e+00
## Median :0.00000 Median :0.00000 Median :0.000 Median :0.00e+00
## Mean :0.02282 Mean :0.05007 Mean :0.017 Mean :6.61e-05
## 3rd Qu.:0.00000 3rd Qu.:0.00000 3rd Qu.:0.000 3rd Qu.:0.00e+00
## Max. :1.00000 Max. :1.00000 Max. :1.000 Max. :1.00e+00
## Soil_Type26 Soil_Type27 Soil_Type28
## Min. :0.000000 Min. :0.0000000 Min. :0.0000000
## 1st Qu.:0.000000 1st Qu.:0.0000000 1st Qu.:0.0000000
## Median :0.000000 Median :0.0000000 Median :0.0000000
## Mean :0.003571 Mean :0.0009921 Mean :0.0005952
## 3rd Qu.:0.000000 3rd Qu.:0.0000000 3rd Qu.:0.0000000
## Max. :1.000000 Max. :1.0000000 Max. :1.0000000
## Soil_Type29 Soil_Type30 Soil_Type31 Soil_Type32
## Min. :0.00000 Min. :0.00000 Min. :0.00000 Min. :0.00000
## 1st Qu.:0.00000 1st Qu.:0.00000 1st Qu.:0.00000 1st Qu.:0.00000
## Median :0.00000 Median :0.00000 Median :0.00000 Median :0.00000
## Mean :0.08538 Mean :0.04795 Mean :0.02196 Mean :0.04563
## 3rd Qu.:0.00000 3rd Qu.:0.00000 3rd Qu.:0.00000 3rd Qu.:0.00000
## Max. :1.00000 Max. :1.00000 Max. :1.00000 Max. :1.00000
## Soil_Type33 Soil_Type34 Soil_Type35
## Min. :0.00000 Min. :0.000000 Min. :0.000000
## 1st Qu.:0.00000 1st Qu.:0.000000 1st Qu.:0.000000
## Median :0.00000 Median :0.000000 Median :0.000000
## Mean :0.04074 Mean :0.001455 Mean :0.006746
## 3rd Qu.:0.00000 3rd Qu.:0.000000 3rd Qu.:0.000000
## Max. :1.00000 Max. :1.000000 Max. :1.000000
## Soil_Type36 Soil_Type37 Soil_Type38
## Min. :0.0000000 Min. :0.000000 Min. :0.00000
## 1st Qu.:0.0000000 1st Qu.:0.000000 1st Qu.:0.00000
## Median :0.0000000 Median :0.000000 Median :0.00000
## Mean :0.0006614 Mean :0.002249 Mean :0.04815
## 3rd Qu.:0.0000000 3rd Qu.:0.000000 3rd Qu.:0.00000
## Max. :1.0000000 Max. :1.000000 Max. :1.00000
## Soil_Type39 Soil_Type40
## Min. :0.00000 Min. :0.00000
## 1st Qu.:0.00000 1st Qu.:0.00000
## Median :0.00000 Median :0.00000
## Mean :0.04345 Mean :0.03036
## 3rd Qu.:0.00000 3rd Qu.:0.00000
## Max. :1.00000 Max. :1.00000attach(forest)
library(ISLR)
library(MASS)
hist(Cover_Type)
#plot(Cover_Type~.,forest)Applying Multiple Linear Regression
fit1=lm(Cover_Type~.,forest)
summary(fit1)##
## Call:
## lm(formula = Cover_Type ~ ., data = forest)
##
## Residuals:
## Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
## -6.1299 -1.0931 0.0045 1.0851 5.7893
##
## Coefficients: (4 not defined because of singularities)
## Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
## (Intercept) 5.501e+00 8.118e-01 6.777 1.27e-11
## Id -1.981e-05 3.400e-06 -5.827 5.77e-09
## Elevation -3.835e-04 1.051e-04 -3.648 0.000265
## Aspect 7.479e-04 1.597e-04 4.683 2.85e-06
## Slope 9.522e-03 4.550e-03 2.093 0.036373
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology -1.058e-03 9.379e-05 -11.280 < 2e-16
## Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology 1.674e-03 3.076e-04 5.443 5.31e-08
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways -1.618e-04 1.372e-05 -11.793 < 2e-16
## Hillshade_9am 2.066e-02 4.526e-03 4.564 5.05e-06
## Hillshade_Noon -1.601e-02 3.753e-03 -4.265 2.01e-05
## Hillshade_3pm 1.338e-02 3.707e-03 3.608 0.000309
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points 1.036e-04 1.506e-05 6.878 6.29e-12
## Wilderness_Area1 -7.674e-01 8.273e-02 -9.276 < 2e-16
## Wilderness_Area2 -4.271e-01 1.052e-01 -4.061 4.92e-05
## Wilderness_Area3 4.994e-01 5.791e-02 8.624 < 2e-16
## Wilderness_Area4 NA NA NA NA
## Soil_Type1 -3.230e+00 1.526e-01 -21.168 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type2 -3.175e+00 1.306e-01 -24.309 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type3 -3.603e+00 1.361e-01 -26.467 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type4 -3.728e+00 1.265e-01 -29.477 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type5 -2.859e+00 1.723e-01 -16.592 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type6 -3.207e+00 1.300e-01 -24.664 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type7 NA NA NA NA
## Soil_Type8 -3.970e+00 1.549e+00 -2.562 0.010407
## Soil_Type9 -4.515e+00 5.029e-01 -8.978 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type10 -2.689e+00 1.178e-01 -22.827 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type11 -3.326e+00 1.301e-01 -25.561 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type12 -4.369e+00 1.486e-01 -29.401 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type13 -2.976e+00 1.207e-01 -24.653 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type14 -3.065e+00 1.731e-01 -17.706 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type15 NA NA NA NA
## Soil_Type16 -3.037e+00 1.846e-01 -16.458 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type17 -3.055e+00 1.349e-01 -22.638 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type18 -2.720e+00 2.412e-01 -11.277 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type19 -3.804e+00 2.453e-01 -15.507 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type20 -4.019e+00 1.648e-01 -24.394 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type21 -4.865e+00 3.966e-01 -12.268 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type22 -4.870e+00 1.174e-01 -41.477 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type23 -4.031e+00 1.034e-01 -38.993 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type24 -4.475e+00 1.269e-01 -35.272 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type25 -4.809e+00 1.549e+00 -3.105 0.001907
## Soil_Type26 -3.834e+00 2.321e-01 -16.521 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type27 -4.179e+00 4.077e-01 -10.249 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type28 -4.249e+00 5.271e-01 -8.063 8.02e-16
## Soil_Type29 -3.524e+00 1.057e-01 -33.322 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type30 -2.438e+00 1.190e-01 -20.490 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type31 -4.289e+00 1.226e-01 -34.975 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type32 -4.352e+00 1.041e-01 -41.814 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type33 -4.010e+00 1.076e-01 -37.267 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type34 -3.041e+00 3.428e-01 -8.871 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type35 8.864e-02 1.725e-01 0.514 0.607361
## Soil_Type36 -3.402e-01 4.975e-01 -0.684 0.494112
## Soil_Type37 1.026e+00 2.786e-01 3.682 0.000232
## Soil_Type38 -2.014e-01 9.593e-02 -2.100 0.035767
## Soil_Type39 -4.491e-01 9.842e-02 -4.563 5.09e-06
## Soil_Type40 NA NA NA NA
##
## (Intercept) ***
## Id ***
## Elevation ***
## Aspect ***
## Slope *
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology ***
## Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology ***
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways ***
## Hillshade_9am ***
## Hillshade_Noon ***
## Hillshade_3pm ***
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points ***
## Wilderness_Area1 ***
## Wilderness_Area2 ***
## Wilderness_Area3 ***
## Wilderness_Area4
## Soil_Type1 ***
## Soil_Type2 ***
## Soil_Type3 ***
## Soil_Type4 ***
## Soil_Type5 ***
## Soil_Type6 ***
## Soil_Type7
## Soil_Type8 *
## Soil_Type9 ***
## Soil_Type10 ***
## Soil_Type11 ***
## Soil_Type12 ***
## Soil_Type13 ***
## Soil_Type14 ***
## Soil_Type15
## Soil_Type16 ***
## Soil_Type17 ***
## Soil_Type18 ***
## Soil_Type19 ***
## Soil_Type20 ***
## Soil_Type21 ***
## Soil_Type22 ***
## Soil_Type23 ***
## Soil_Type24 ***
## Soil_Type25 **
## Soil_Type26 ***
## Soil_Type27 ***
## Soil_Type28 ***
## Soil_Type29 ***
## Soil_Type30 ***
## Soil_Type31 ***
## Soil_Type32 ***
## Soil_Type33 ***
## Soil_Type34 ***
## Soil_Type35
## Soil_Type36
## Soil_Type37 ***
## Soil_Type38 *
## Soil_Type39 ***
## Soil_Type40
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
##
## Residual standard error: 1.545 on 15068 degrees of freedom
## Multiple R-squared: 0.4054, Adjusted R-squared: 0.4034
## F-statistic: 201.5 on 51 and 15068 DF, p-value: < 2.2e-16plot(fit1,col=Cover_Type)## Warning: not plotting observations with leverage one:
## 498, 10606
## Warning: not plotting observations with leverage one:
## 498, 10606
Multiple linear regression after excluding categories which are not affecting the model =====
fit2=update(fit1,~.-Wilderness_Area4-Soil_Type7-Soil_Type15-Soil_Type35-Soil_Type36-Soil_Type40)
summary(fit2)##
## Call:
## lm(formula = Cover_Type ~ Id + Elevation + Aspect + Slope + Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology +
## Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology + Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways +
## Hillshade_9am + Hillshade_Noon + Hillshade_3pm + Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points +
## Wilderness_Area1 + Wilderness_Area2 + Wilderness_Area3 +
## Soil_Type1 + Soil_Type2 + Soil_Type3 + Soil_Type4 + Soil_Type5 +
## Soil_Type6 + Soil_Type8 + Soil_Type9 + Soil_Type10 + Soil_Type11 +
## Soil_Type12 + Soil_Type13 + Soil_Type14 + Soil_Type16 + Soil_Type17 +
## Soil_Type18 + Soil_Type19 + Soil_Type20 + Soil_Type21 + Soil_Type22 +
## Soil_Type23 + Soil_Type24 + Soil_Type25 + Soil_Type26 + Soil_Type27 +
## Soil_Type28 + Soil_Type29 + Soil_Type30 + Soil_Type31 + Soil_Type32 +
## Soil_Type33 + Soil_Type34 + Soil_Type37 + Soil_Type38 + Soil_Type39,
## data = forest)
##
## Residuals:
## Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
## -6.1325 -1.0930 0.0059 1.0844 5.7913
##
## Coefficients:
## Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
## (Intercept) 5.517e+00 8.111e-01 6.802 1.07e-11
## Id -1.977e-05 3.400e-06 -5.815 6.19e-09
## Elevation -3.817e-04 1.051e-04 -3.632 0.000282
## Aspect 7.485e-04 1.597e-04 4.688 2.79e-06
## Slope 9.438e-03 4.548e-03 2.075 0.037981
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology -1.067e-03 9.328e-05 -11.436 < 2e-16
## Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology 1.681e-03 3.065e-04 5.483 4.26e-08
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways -1.620e-04 1.372e-05 -11.810 < 2e-16
## Hillshade_9am 2.063e-02 4.526e-03 4.558 5.21e-06
## Hillshade_Noon -1.599e-02 3.752e-03 -4.263 2.03e-05
## Hillshade_3pm 1.335e-02 3.707e-03 3.602 0.000316
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points 1.035e-04 1.504e-05 6.884 6.06e-12
## Wilderness_Area1 -7.666e-01 8.272e-02 -9.267 < 2e-16
## Wilderness_Area2 -4.298e-01 1.047e-01 -4.103 4.10e-05
## Wilderness_Area3 4.993e-01 5.791e-02 8.622 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type1 -3.241e+00 1.472e-01 -22.024 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type2 -3.185e+00 1.245e-01 -25.588 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type3 -3.613e+00 1.301e-01 -27.776 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type4 -3.738e+00 1.199e-01 -31.177 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type5 -2.870e+00 1.680e-01 -17.083 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type6 -3.218e+00 1.242e-01 -25.910 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type8 -3.980e+00 1.549e+00 -2.570 0.010182
## Soil_Type9 -4.527e+00 5.014e-01 -9.029 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type10 -2.700e+00 1.114e-01 -24.232 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type11 -3.336e+00 1.241e-01 -26.874 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type12 -4.380e+00 1.441e-01 -30.397 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type13 -2.987e+00 1.144e-01 -26.099 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type14 -3.077e+00 1.682e-01 -18.296 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type16 -3.050e+00 1.802e-01 -16.928 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type17 -3.066e+00 1.287e-01 -23.822 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type18 -2.732e+00 2.385e-01 -11.452 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type19 -3.816e+00 2.423e-01 -15.750 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type20 -4.031e+00 1.603e-01 -25.150 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type21 -4.878e+00 3.945e-01 -12.366 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type22 -4.881e+00 1.116e-01 -43.755 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type23 -4.043e+00 9.620e-02 -42.029 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type24 -4.485e+00 1.219e-01 -36.804 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type25 -4.818e+00 1.549e+00 -3.111 0.001865
## Soil_Type26 -3.844e+00 2.288e-01 -16.798 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type27 -4.187e+00 4.062e-01 -10.308 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type28 -4.259e+00 5.259e-01 -8.099 5.95e-16
## Soil_Type29 -3.535e+00 9.919e-02 -35.640 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type30 -2.450e+00 1.129e-01 -21.708 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type31 -4.299e+00 1.166e-01 -36.874 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type32 -4.362e+00 9.713e-02 -44.908 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type33 -4.020e+00 1.011e-01 -39.774 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type34 -3.050e+00 3.408e-01 -8.948 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type37 1.013e+00 2.762e-01 3.670 0.000244
## Soil_Type38 -2.122e-01 8.882e-02 -2.389 0.016893
## Soil_Type39 -4.603e-01 9.143e-02 -5.034 4.85e-07
##
## (Intercept) ***
## Id ***
## Elevation ***
## Aspect ***
## Slope *
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology ***
## Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology ***
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways ***
## Hillshade_9am ***
## Hillshade_Noon ***
## Hillshade_3pm ***
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points ***
## Wilderness_Area1 ***
## Wilderness_Area2 ***
## Wilderness_Area3 ***
## Soil_Type1 ***
## Soil_Type2 ***
## Soil_Type3 ***
## Soil_Type4 ***
## Soil_Type5 ***
## Soil_Type6 ***
## Soil_Type8 *
## Soil_Type9 ***
## Soil_Type10 ***
## Soil_Type11 ***
## Soil_Type12 ***
## Soil_Type13 ***
## Soil_Type14 ***
## Soil_Type16 ***
## Soil_Type17 ***
## Soil_Type18 ***
## Soil_Type19 ***
## Soil_Type20 ***
## Soil_Type21 ***
## Soil_Type22 ***
## Soil_Type23 ***
## Soil_Type24 ***
## Soil_Type25 **
## Soil_Type26 ***
## Soil_Type27 ***
## Soil_Type28 ***
## Soil_Type29 ***
## Soil_Type30 ***
## Soil_Type31 ***
## Soil_Type32 ***
## Soil_Type33 ***
## Soil_Type34 ***
## Soil_Type37 ***
## Soil_Type38 *
## Soil_Type39 ***
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
##
## Residual standard error: 1.545 on 15070 degrees of freedom
## Multiple R-squared: 0.4054, Adjusted R-squared: 0.4035
## F-statistic: 209.7 on 49 and 15070 DF, p-value: < 2.2e-16plot(fit2,col=Cover_Type)## Warning: not plotting observations with leverage one:
## 498, 10606
## Warning: not plotting observations with leverage one:
## 498, 10606
Applying LDA ===
forest=na.omit(forest)
lda.fit=lda(Cover_Type~Elevation+Aspect+Slope+Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology+Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways+Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology+Hillshade_9am+Hillshade_Noon+Hillshade_3pm+Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points+Wilderness_Area1+Soil_Type1,data=forest,subset = Id<7560)
lda.fit## Call:
## lda(Cover_Type ~ Elevation + Aspect + Slope + Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology +
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways + Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology +
## Hillshade_9am + Hillshade_Noon + Hillshade_3pm + Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points +
## Wilderness_Area1 + Soil_Type1, data = forest, subset = Id <
## 7560)
##
## Prior probabilities of groups:
## 1 2 3 4 5 6
## 0.10464347 0.15160736 0.14856462 0.21431406 0.16906998 0.15134277
## 7
## 0.06045773
##
## Group means:
## Elevation Aspect Slope Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology
## 1 3095.315 144.6271 12.42225 249.6018
## 2 2891.533 151.0079 12.43979 267.0611
## 3 2322.868 181.3375 21.49510 209.0018
## 4 2224.977 138.6704 18.48642 105.2025
## 5 2783.534 134.0626 17.05790 174.2801
## 6 2373.412 198.3383 20.25874 177.8234
## 7 3304.639 134.8009 12.90153 230.3501
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology
## 1 3240.4842 34.65234
## 2 2652.3447 42.35951
## 3 758.0267 69.91006
## 4 911.0259 40.44444
## 5 1180.4961 41.19249
## 6 909.1477 54.49301
## 7 2878.7046 35.71554
## Hillshade_9am Hillshade_Noon Hillshade_3pm
## 1 214.3059 222.2478 140.3515
## 2 214.6274 224.6667 142.5131
## 3 193.5859 210.3072 144.1612
## 4 227.5562 217.0667 112.4611
## 5 223.0595 217.0806 120.2770
## 6 187.1049 208.3208 152.5900
## 7 220.2976 221.5011 132.2604
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points Wilderness_Area1 Soil_Type1
## 1 2362.7724 0.8445006 0.00000000
## 2 2377.0628 0.7146597 0.00000000
## 3 790.1923 0.0000000 0.08103295
## 4 863.0735 0.0000000 0.06234568
## 5 1534.8850 0.5039124 0.00000000
## 6 908.9441 0.0000000 0.06555944
## 7 2196.7155 0.6870897 0.00000000
##
## Coefficients of linear discriminants:
## LD1 LD2
## Elevation -0.0067883328 -7.195469e-04
## Aspect 0.0007862818 6.135098e-04
## Slope 0.0147587907 1.965403e-03
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology 0.0001877040 -2.050883e-03
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways 0.0001300346 3.408926e-05
## Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology 0.0031912442 1.340208e-05
## Hillshade_9am 0.0160444450 -9.049977e-03
## Hillshade_Noon -0.0031662584 5.805970e-02
## Hillshade_3pm 0.0073124386 -3.528852e-02
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points -0.0001265796 3.076978e-06
## Wilderness_Area1 -1.2040174798 5.233190e-01
## Soil_Type1 -0.6685264157 -1.320456e+00
## LD3 LD4
## Elevation -0.0031917083 -0.0017254207
## Aspect -0.0002307092 -0.0008068810
## Slope -0.0473419224 0.0225804897
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology 0.0031791663 0.0027176815
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways 0.0007854884 -0.0006096533
## Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology -0.0026631688 -0.0016017819
## Hillshade_9am -0.0156963355 0.0109107250
## Hillshade_Noon 0.0080673173 0.0009747386
## Hillshade_3pm -0.0117371034 0.0157287705
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points 0.0001878587 0.0001387898
## Wilderness_Area1 0.3807534040 2.5269005156
## Soil_Type1 -0.0029089621 -0.9972920284
## LD5 LD6
## Elevation 0.0004225983 -0.0006329330
## Aspect -0.0039063127 -0.0006195341
## Slope -0.0818993764 0.0045181107
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology 0.0012502357 -0.0018717829
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways 0.0001028987 0.0002757561
## Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology 0.0073278206 -0.0022590725
## Hillshade_9am -0.1746437736 -0.0268850996
## Hillshade_Noon 0.1659882691 0.0085915368
## Hillshade_3pm -0.1420489266 -0.0168447796
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points -0.0002829376 -0.0007171466
## Wilderness_Area1 0.1257930851 1.8482545889
## Soil_Type1 0.9091691204 -0.1282839045
##
## Proportion of trace:
## LD1 LD2 LD3 LD4 LD5 LD6
## 0.9105 0.0458 0.0293 0.0105 0.0026 0.0012plot(lda.fit,col=Cover_Type)
forest.7560=subset(forest,Id>7560)
lda.pred=predict(lda.fit,forest.7560)
class(lda.pred)## [1] "list"data.frame(lda.pred)[1:5,]## class posterior.1 posterior.2 posterior.3 posterior.4 posterior.5
## 7561 5 4.340090e-03 0.2654242157 0.05053955 0.01441893 0.54112814
## 7562 5 1.758588e-03 0.1261579840 0.05269009 0.03054900 0.61448786
## 7563 5 1.684363e-03 0.1325821662 0.05529380 0.03635122 0.59767976
## 7564 6 3.909149e-06 0.0014861021 0.22371027 0.22526827 0.04200848
## 7565 4 6.637587e-07 0.0005569471 0.13984351 0.67481867 0.03226464
## posterior.6 posterior.7 x.LD1 x.LD2 x.LD3 x.LD4
## 7561 0.1241241 2.494883e-05 -0.3137116 0.2798418 0.37765973 -1.3384161
## 7562 0.1743433 1.318104e-05 -0.1279826 0.5305871 -0.02094790 -1.5326177
## 7563 0.1763975 1.117752e-05 -0.1024683 0.5943937 0.05746035 -1.4991761
## 7564 0.5075230 6.200440e-09 1.0808596 0.3412082 -0.40519206 -1.1783863
## 7565 0.1525156 6.750280e-10 1.3494574 1.4363574 -0.46948940 -0.7103453
## x.LD5 x.LD6
## 7561 0.09627281 -0.7397596
## 7562 -0.66152221 -0.6088038
## 7563 -0.66774782 -0.6646789
## 7564 -0.88996480 0.0938163
## 7565 -0.49693314 -0.2330391table(lda.pred$class,forest.7560$Cover_Type)##
## 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
## 1 325 100 0 0 2 0 127
## 2 193 356 21 0 152 20 33
## 3 0 6 278 18 0 95 0
## 4 1 4 318 486 6 186 0
## 5 247 369 147 0 658 112 14
## 6 3 42 273 36 64 602 0
## 7 600 137 0 0 0 0 1529mean(lda.pred$class==forest.7560$Cover_Type)## [1] 0.5600529Applying KNN
library(class)
xlag=cbind(Elevation,Aspect,Slope,Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology,Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways,Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology,Hillshade_9am,Hillshade_Noon,Hillshade_3pm,Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points,Wilderness_Area1,Soil_Type1)
train=Id<7650
knn.pred=knn(xlag[train,],xlag[!train,],Cover_Type[train],k=1)
table(knn.pred,Cover_Type[!train])##
## knn.pred 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
## 1 686 211 24 0 53 28 841
## 2 440 598 229 0 218 175 147
## 3 1 32 504 8 21 175 0
## 4 0 1 54 525 0 62 0
## 5 85 106 57 0 529 61 26
## 6 2 22 157 7 44 483 0
## 7 153 38 0 0 0 0 668mean(knn.pred==Cover_Type[!train])## [1] 0.5344666Trying Logistic Regression
glm.fit=glm(Cover_Type~.,data=forest,family=gaussian())
summary(glm.fit)##
## Call:
## glm(formula = Cover_Type ~ ., family = gaussian(), data = forest)
##
## Deviance Residuals:
## Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
## -6.1299 -1.0931 0.0045 1.0851 5.7893
##
## Coefficients: (4 not defined because of singularities)
## Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
## (Intercept) 5.501e+00 8.118e-01 6.777 1.27e-11
## Id -1.981e-05 3.400e-06 -5.827 5.77e-09
## Elevation -3.835e-04 1.051e-04 -3.648 0.000265
## Aspect 7.479e-04 1.597e-04 4.683 2.85e-06
## Slope 9.522e-03 4.550e-03 2.093 0.036373
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology -1.058e-03 9.379e-05 -11.280 < 2e-16
## Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology 1.674e-03 3.076e-04 5.443 5.31e-08
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways -1.618e-04 1.372e-05 -11.793 < 2e-16
## Hillshade_9am 2.066e-02 4.526e-03 4.564 5.05e-06
## Hillshade_Noon -1.601e-02 3.753e-03 -4.265 2.01e-05
## Hillshade_3pm 1.338e-02 3.707e-03 3.608 0.000309
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points 1.036e-04 1.506e-05 6.878 6.29e-12
## Wilderness_Area1 -7.674e-01 8.273e-02 -9.276 < 2e-16
## Wilderness_Area2 -4.271e-01 1.052e-01 -4.061 4.92e-05
## Wilderness_Area3 4.994e-01 5.791e-02 8.624 < 2e-16
## Wilderness_Area4 NA NA NA NA
## Soil_Type1 -3.230e+00 1.526e-01 -21.168 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type2 -3.175e+00 1.306e-01 -24.309 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type3 -3.603e+00 1.361e-01 -26.467 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type4 -3.728e+00 1.265e-01 -29.477 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type5 -2.859e+00 1.723e-01 -16.592 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type6 -3.207e+00 1.300e-01 -24.664 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type7 NA NA NA NA
## Soil_Type8 -3.970e+00 1.549e+00 -2.562 0.010407
## Soil_Type9 -4.515e+00 5.029e-01 -8.978 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type10 -2.689e+00 1.178e-01 -22.827 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type11 -3.326e+00 1.301e-01 -25.561 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type12 -4.369e+00 1.486e-01 -29.401 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type13 -2.976e+00 1.207e-01 -24.653 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type14 -3.065e+00 1.731e-01 -17.706 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type15 NA NA NA NA
## Soil_Type16 -3.037e+00 1.846e-01 -16.458 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type17 -3.055e+00 1.349e-01 -22.638 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type18 -2.720e+00 2.412e-01 -11.277 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type19 -3.804e+00 2.453e-01 -15.507 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type20 -4.019e+00 1.648e-01 -24.394 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type21 -4.865e+00 3.966e-01 -12.268 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type22 -4.870e+00 1.174e-01 -41.477 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type23 -4.031e+00 1.034e-01 -38.993 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type24 -4.475e+00 1.269e-01 -35.272 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type25 -4.809e+00 1.549e+00 -3.105 0.001907
## Soil_Type26 -3.834e+00 2.321e-01 -16.521 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type27 -4.179e+00 4.077e-01 -10.249 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type28 -4.249e+00 5.271e-01 -8.063 8.02e-16
## Soil_Type29 -3.524e+00 1.057e-01 -33.322 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type30 -2.438e+00 1.190e-01 -20.490 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type31 -4.289e+00 1.226e-01 -34.975 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type32 -4.352e+00 1.041e-01 -41.814 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type33 -4.010e+00 1.076e-01 -37.267 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type34 -3.041e+00 3.428e-01 -8.871 < 2e-16
## Soil_Type35 8.864e-02 1.725e-01 0.514 0.607361
## Soil_Type36 -3.402e-01 4.975e-01 -0.684 0.494112
## Soil_Type37 1.026e+00 2.786e-01 3.682 0.000232
## Soil_Type38 -2.014e-01 9.593e-02 -2.100 0.035767
## Soil_Type39 -4.491e-01 9.842e-02 -4.563 5.09e-06
## Soil_Type40 NA NA NA NA
##
## (Intercept) ***
## Id ***
## Elevation ***
## Aspect ***
## Slope *
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology ***
## Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology ***
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways ***
## Hillshade_9am ***
## Hillshade_Noon ***
## Hillshade_3pm ***
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points ***
## Wilderness_Area1 ***
## Wilderness_Area2 ***
## Wilderness_Area3 ***
## Wilderness_Area4
## Soil_Type1 ***
## Soil_Type2 ***
## Soil_Type3 ***
## Soil_Type4 ***
## Soil_Type5 ***
## Soil_Type6 ***
## Soil_Type7
## Soil_Type8 *
## Soil_Type9 ***
## Soil_Type10 ***
## Soil_Type11 ***
## Soil_Type12 ***
## Soil_Type13 ***
## Soil_Type14 ***
## Soil_Type15
## Soil_Type16 ***
## Soil_Type17 ***
## Soil_Type18 ***
## Soil_Type19 ***
## Soil_Type20 ***
## Soil_Type21 ***
## Soil_Type22 ***
## Soil_Type23 ***
## Soil_Type24 ***
## Soil_Type25 **
## Soil_Type26 ***
## Soil_Type27 ***
## Soil_Type28 ***
## Soil_Type29 ***
## Soil_Type30 ***
## Soil_Type31 ***
## Soil_Type32 ***
## Soil_Type33 ***
## Soil_Type34 ***
## Soil_Type35
## Soil_Type36
## Soil_Type37 ***
## Soil_Type38 *
## Soil_Type39 ***
## Soil_Type40
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
##
## (Dispersion parameter for gaussian family taken to be 2.386436)
##
## Null deviance: 60480 on 15119 degrees of freedom
## Residual deviance: 35959 on 15068 degrees of freedom
## AIC: 56114
##
## Number of Fisher Scoring iterations: 2glm.probs=predict(glm.fit,type="response")
glm.probs[1:5]## 1 2 3 4 5
## 3.408489 3.428883 2.254743 4.338970 3.486453glm.pred=ifelse(glm.probs>1,"1","2-7")
table(glm.pred,Cover_Type)## Cover_Type
## glm.pred 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
## 1 2082 2140 2160 2160 2160 2160 2160
## 2-7 78 20 0 0 0 0 0mean(glm.pred==Cover_Type)## [1] 0.1376984Validation approaches
#leave one out cross validation
loocv=function(fit){
h=lm.influence(fit)$h
mean((residuals(fit)/(1-h))^2)
}
loocv(glm.fit)## [1] Infcv.errors=rep(0,5)
train=Id<7650
library(boot)
alpha=function(x,y){
vx=var(x)
vy=var(y)
cxy=cov(x,y)
(vy-cxy)/(vx+vy-2*cxy)
}
alpha.fn=function(data,index){
with(data[index,],alpha(x,y))
}Model selection Techniques by variable selection
It includes forward selection, backward selection, validation set approach and cross-validation approach
library(leaps)
#model selection using forward selection
regfit.fwd=regsubsets(Cover_Type~.,data=forest,nvmax=19,method="forward")## Warning in leaps.setup(x, y, wt = wt, nbest = nbest, nvmax = nvmax,
## force.in = force.in, : 4 linear dependencies found## Reordering variables and trying again:reg.summary=summary(regfit.fwd)
names(reg.summary)## [1] "which" "rsq" "rss" "adjr2" "cp" "bic" "outmat" "obj"plot(reg.summary$cp,xlab="Number of variables",ylab="cp")
which.min(reg.summary$cp)## [1] 20points(20,reg.summary$cp[20],pch=20,col="red")
plot(regfit.fwd,scale="Cp",col=Cover_Type)
coef(regfit.fwd,20)## (Intercept) Elevation
## 6.059467e+00 -1.138600e-03
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways
## -4.955203e-04 -2.091855e-04
## Hillshade_9am Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points
## 1.019150e-03 9.401572e-05
## Wilderness_Area1 Wilderness_Area3
## 2.563841e-01 1.168159e+00
## Soil_Type1 Soil_Type12
## -2.196728e-01 -1.084884e+00
## Soil_Type16 Soil_Type25
## 1.450562e-01 -7.324634e-01
## Soil_Type32 Soil_Type33
## -6.642902e-01 -3.249749e-01
## Soil_Type35 Soil_Type38
## 3.984261e+00 3.644256e+00
## Soil_Type39 Wilderness_Area4
## 3.420625e+00 7.192060e-01
## Soil_Type7 Soil_Type15
## 0.000000e+00 0.000000e+00
## Soil_Type40
## 4.028157e+00#model selection using backward selection
regfit.bwd=regsubsets(Cover_Type~.,data=forest,nvmax=19,method="backward")## Warning in leaps.setup(x, y, wt = wt, nbest = nbest, nvmax = nvmax,
## force.in = force.in, : 4 linear dependencies found## Reordering variables and trying again:regg.summary=summary(regfit.bwd)
names(regg.summary)## [1] "which" "rsq" "rss" "adjr2" "cp" "bic" "outmat" "obj"plot(regg.summary$cp,xlab="Number of variables",ylab="cp")
which.min(regg.summary$cp)## [1] 20points(20,regg.summary$cp[20],pch=20,col="red")
plot(regfit.bwd,scale="Cp",col=Cover_Type)
coef(regfit.bwd,20)## (Intercept) Wilderness_Area1 Soil_Type2 Soil_Type3
## 4.6702630 -1.2474608 -0.4519644 -0.7960426
## Soil_Type4 Soil_Type5 Soil_Type8 Soil_Type12
## -0.8992072 -0.1429902 -1.4228022 -1.5285291
## Soil_Type13 Soil_Type14 Soil_Type16 Soil_Type20
## -0.2206831 -0.2560618 -0.1402294 -1.0978920
## Soil_Type23 Soil_Type25 Soil_Type26 Soil_Type27
## -1.4699973 -2.6702630 -1.2443370 -2.1369296
## Soil_Type32 Soil_Type33 Soil_Type34 Soil_Type35
## -1.8804079 -1.4364967 -0.8520811 2.4466870
## Soil_Type36
## 1.3297370#model selection using a validation set
set.seed(1)
dim(forest)## [1] 15120 56train=sample(seq(15120),10080,replace = FALSE)
regfit.fwd=regsubsets(Cover_Type~.,data=forest[train,],nvmax=19,method="forward")## Warning in leaps.setup(x, y, wt = wt, nbest = nbest, nvmax = nvmax,
## force.in = force.in, : 4 linear dependencies found## Reordering variables and trying again:vol.errors=rep(NA,19)
x.test=model.matrix(Cover_Type~.,data=forest[-train,])
for(i in 1:19){
coefi=coef(regfit.fwd,id=i)
pred=x.test[,names(coefi)]%*%coefi
vol.errors[i]=mean((forest$Elevation[-train]-pred)^2)
}
plot(sqrt(vol.errors),ylab="Root MSE",ylim=c(1,15120),pch=19,type = "b")
points(sqrt(regfit.fwd$rss[-1]/10080),col="blue",pch=19,type = "b")
legend("topright",legend=c("Training","Validation"),col=c("blue","black"),pch=19)
#model selection by cross-validation
set.seed(11)
folds=sample(rep(1:10,length=nrow(forest)))
table(folds) ## folds
## 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
## 1512 1512 1512 1512 1512 1512 1512 1512 1512 1512cv.errors=matrix(NA,10,19)
#function to predict regsubsets as normal method predict() does not support
predict.regsubsets = function(object, newdata, id, ...) {
form <- as.formula(~.)
mat <- model.matrix(form, newdata)
coefi <- coef(object, id)
xvars <- names(coefi)
mat[, xvars] %*% coefi
}
for(k in 1:10){
best.fit=regsubsets(Cover_Type~.,data=forest[folds!=k,],nvmax=19,method="forward")
for(i in 1:19){
pred=predict.regsubsets(best.fit,forest[folds==k,],id=i)
cv.errors[k,i]=mean((forest$Cover_Type[folds==k]-pred)^2)
}
}## Warning in leaps.setup(x, y, wt = wt, nbest = nbest, nvmax = nvmax,
## force.in = force.in, : 5 linear dependencies found## Reordering variables and trying again:## Warning in leaps.setup(x, y, wt = wt, nbest = nbest, nvmax = nvmax,
## force.in = force.in, : 4 linear dependencies found## Reordering variables and trying again:## Warning in leaps.setup(x, y, wt = wt, nbest = nbest, nvmax = nvmax,
## force.in = force.in, : 4 linear dependencies found## Reordering variables and trying again:## Warning in leaps.setup(x, y, wt = wt, nbest = nbest, nvmax = nvmax,
## force.in = force.in, : 4 linear dependencies found## Reordering variables and trying again:## Warning in leaps.setup(x, y, wt = wt, nbest = nbest, nvmax = nvmax,
## force.in = force.in, : 5 linear dependencies found## Reordering variables and trying again:## Warning in leaps.setup(x, y, wt = wt, nbest = nbest, nvmax = nvmax,
## force.in = force.in, : 4 linear dependencies found## Reordering variables and trying again:## Warning in leaps.setup(x, y, wt = wt, nbest = nbest, nvmax = nvmax,
## force.in = force.in, : 4 linear dependencies found## Reordering variables and trying again:## Warning in leaps.setup(x, y, wt = wt, nbest = nbest, nvmax = nvmax,
## force.in = force.in, : 4 linear dependencies found## Reordering variables and trying again:## Warning in leaps.setup(x, y, wt = wt, nbest = nbest, nvmax = nvmax,
## force.in = force.in, : 4 linear dependencies found## Reordering variables and trying again:## Warning in leaps.setup(x, y, wt = wt, nbest = nbest, nvmax = nvmax,
## force.in = force.in, : 4 linear dependencies found## Reordering variables and trying again:rmse.cv = sqrt(apply(cv.errors, 2, mean))
plot(rmse.cv, pch = 19, type = "b")
LASSO AND RIDGE REGRESSION ===
library(glmnet)## Loading required package: Matrix## Loading required package: foreach## Loaded glmnet 2.0-18x=model.matrix(Cover_Type~.-1,data=forest)
y=forest$Cover_Type
#Ridge Regression
fit.ridge=glmnet(x,y,alpha=0)
plot(fit.ridge,xvar = "lambda",label = TRUE)
#models in ridge regression are penalized by sum of squares of coefficient controlled by parameter lambda.
#as lambda increases coefficients shring to 0
#when lambda =0 coefficients are same as we get for ordinary least square fit of variables
plot(fit.ridge,xvar = "dev",label = TRUE)
#fraction of deviavnce explained (like r squared)
cv.ridge=cv.glmnet(x,y,alpha=0)
#applying cross validation
plot(cv.ridge)
#plot of cross validation vs mean squared error
#grey area marks one - standard error of minimum
#LASSO
fit.lasso=glmnet(x,y) #default value of alpha=1
plot(fit.lasso,xvar="lambda",label=TRUE)
plot(fit.lasso,xvar="dev",label=TRUE)#indicates end of path is overfitting
cv.lasso=cv.glmnet(x,y)
plot(cv.lasso)
#minimum cross validadion error is at size 51
#with one standard error we have model of size 45
coef(cv.lasso)## 56 x 1 sparse Matrix of class "dgCMatrix"
## 1
## (Intercept) 4.535083e+00
## Id -9.806972e-06
## Elevation -3.250576e-06
## Aspect .
## Slope .
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology -7.497217e-04
## Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology 3.935822e-04
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways -1.433921e-04
## Hillshade_9am 2.218031e-05
## Hillshade_Noon .
## Hillshade_3pm -1.336797e-03
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points 3.581620e-05
## Wilderness_Area1 -8.293611e-01
## Wilderness_Area2 -5.491242e-01
## Wilderness_Area3 2.377696e-01
## Wilderness_Area4 .
## Soil_Type1 .
## Soil_Type2 1.327824e-02
## Soil_Type3 -2.301718e-01
## Soil_Type4 -3.331822e-01
## Soil_Type5 1.766310e-01
## Soil_Type6 .
## Soil_Type7 .
## Soil_Type8 .
## Soil_Type9 -5.260291e-01
## Soil_Type10 4.724931e-01
## Soil_Type11 .
## Soil_Type12 -9.687745e-01
## Soil_Type13 1.778261e-01
## Soil_Type14 1.186690e-02
## Soil_Type15 .
## Soil_Type16 2.412549e-02
## Soil_Type17 1.377029e-01
## Soil_Type18 4.188529e-01
## Soil_Type19 -2.668824e-01
## Soil_Type20 -5.110551e-01
## Soil_Type21 -1.053389e+00
## Soil_Type22 -1.706859e+00
## Soil_Type23 -8.189671e-01
## Soil_Type24 -1.154369e+00
## Soil_Type25 .
## Soil_Type26 -2.226305e-01
## Soil_Type27 -4.303520e-01
## Soil_Type28 -1.707247e-01
## Soil_Type29 -3.486249e-01
## Soil_Type30 6.378552e-01
## Soil_Type31 -9.519177e-01
## Soil_Type32 -1.089034e+00
## Soil_Type33 -6.955583e-01
## Soil_Type34 .
## Soil_Type35 2.834275e+00
## Soil_Type36 1.704112e+00
## Soil_Type37 3.432152e+00
## Soil_Type38 2.705183e+00
## Soil_Type39 2.472606e+00
## Soil_Type40 2.861808e+00#it gives coeff of all features after cross validation in coeff. calculated by lasso for best linear model
#it has picked the model with one standard error to avoid over-fittingUsing earlier training data selecting best lambda for lasso
lasso.tr=glmnet(x[train,],y[train])
lasso.tr##
## Call: glmnet(x = x[train, ], y = y[train])
##
## Df %Dev Lambda
## [1,] 0 0.00000 0.4953000
## [2,] 2 0.02038 0.4513000
## [3,] 3 0.04549 0.4112000
## [4,] 4 0.07347 0.3747000
## [5,] 6 0.10310 0.3414000
## [6,] 6 0.12860 0.3110000
## [7,] 6 0.14970 0.2834000
## [8,] 9 0.17170 0.2582000
## [9,] 9 0.19340 0.2353000
## [10,] 11 0.21350 0.2144000
## [11,] 13 0.23360 0.1953000
## [12,] 13 0.25170 0.1780000
## [13,] 13 0.26670 0.1622000
## [14,] 14 0.27920 0.1478000
## [15,] 16 0.29170 0.1346000
## [16,] 17 0.30270 0.1227000
## [17,] 20 0.31340 0.1118000
## [18,] 20 0.32360 0.1019000
## [19,] 20 0.33210 0.0928000
## [20,] 24 0.33980 0.0845600
## [21,] 25 0.34660 0.0770500
## [22,] 26 0.35250 0.0702000
## [23,] 26 0.35760 0.0639700
## [24,] 26 0.36190 0.0582800
## [25,] 27 0.36560 0.0531100
## [26,] 29 0.36890 0.0483900
## [27,] 32 0.37210 0.0440900
## [28,] 32 0.37480 0.0401700
## [29,] 34 0.37720 0.0366000
## [30,] 36 0.37970 0.0333500
## [31,] 37 0.38200 0.0303900
## [32,] 37 0.38390 0.0276900
## [33,] 38 0.38550 0.0252300
## [34,] 39 0.38690 0.0229900
## [35,] 39 0.38810 0.0209500
## [36,] 39 0.38910 0.0190900
## [37,] 40 0.38990 0.0173900
## [38,] 43 0.39060 0.0158400
## [39,] 43 0.39120 0.0144400
## [40,] 44 0.39180 0.0131500
## [41,] 44 0.39230 0.0119900
## [42,] 43 0.39270 0.0109200
## [43,] 43 0.39300 0.0099510
## [44,] 44 0.39330 0.0090670
## [45,] 45 0.39350 0.0082620
## [46,] 45 0.39370 0.0075280
## [47,] 46 0.39380 0.0068590
## [48,] 46 0.39400 0.0062500
## [49,] 47 0.39410 0.0056940
## [50,] 47 0.39420 0.0051880
## [51,] 47 0.39430 0.0047280
## [52,] 47 0.39430 0.0043080
## [53,] 47 0.39440 0.0039250
## [54,] 47 0.39440 0.0035760
## [55,] 47 0.39450 0.0032590
## [56,] 47 0.39450 0.0029690
## [57,] 47 0.39450 0.0027050
## [58,] 47 0.39460 0.0024650
## [59,] 47 0.39460 0.0022460
## [60,] 47 0.39460 0.0020460
## [61,] 48 0.39460 0.0018650
## [62,] 48 0.39460 0.0016990
## [63,] 49 0.39460 0.0015480
## [64,] 49 0.39470 0.0014110
## [65,] 49 0.39470 0.0012850
## [66,] 49 0.39470 0.0011710
## [67,] 49 0.39480 0.0010670
## [68,] 49 0.39480 0.0009722
## [69,] 49 0.39490 0.0008859
## [70,] 49 0.39490 0.0008072
## [71,] 50 0.39490 0.0007355
## [72,] 50 0.39490 0.0006701
## [73,] 50 0.39490 0.0006106
## [74,] 50 0.39500 0.0005563
## [75,] 51 0.39500 0.0005069
## [76,] 51 0.39500 0.0004619
## [77,] 51 0.39500 0.0004209
## [78,] 51 0.39500 0.0003835
## [79,] 51 0.39500 0.0003494
## [80,] 51 0.39510 0.0003184
## [81,] 51 0.39510 0.0002901
## [82,] 51 0.39510 0.0002643
## [83,] 51 0.39510 0.0002408
## [84,] 51 0.39510 0.0002194
## [85,] 51 0.39510 0.0001999
## [86,] 51 0.39510 0.0001822
## [87,] 51 0.39510 0.0001660#it gives degree of freedom(no of non-zero coeff), %deviance, labda corresponding to that fit
#it stops and values stop changing
pred=predict(lasso.tr,x[-train,])
dim(pred)## [1] 5040 87#5040 = observations in validation set
#87=lamda(column wise)
rmse=sqrt(apply((y[-train]-pred)^2,2,mean))
plot(log(lasso.tr$lambda),rmse,type = "b",xlab = "log(lambda)") #validation curve 
#with no over fitting and underfitting after log(lambda)=-2
#extract the best lambda
lam.best=lasso.tr$lambda[order(rmse)[1]]
lam.best## [1] 0.0001659934coef(lasso.tr,s=lam.best)## 56 x 1 sparse Matrix of class "dgCMatrix"
## 1
## (Intercept) 2.596459e+00
## Id -1.960752e-05
## Elevation -1.249039e-04
## Aspect 5.709657e-04
## Slope 5.421515e-03
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology -1.088897e-03
## Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology 1.891508e-03
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways -1.601670e-04
## Hillshade_9am 1.415195e-02
## Hillshade_Noon -1.034733e-02
## Hillshade_3pm 8.387906e-03
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points 1.059260e-04
## Wilderness_Area1 -7.557935e-01
## Wilderness_Area2 -6.251561e-01
## Wilderness_Area3 4.610107e-01
## Wilderness_Area4 .
## Soil_Type1 7.486036e-03
## Soil_Type2 3.257264e-02
## Soil_Type3 -3.906429e-01
## Soil_Type4 -5.988185e-01
## Soil_Type5 3.862865e-01
## Soil_Type6 .
## Soil_Type7 .
## Soil_Type8 -9.289202e-01
## Soil_Type9 -1.438195e+00
## Soil_Type10 5.239411e-01
## Soil_Type11 -9.182711e-02
## Soil_Type12 -1.283566e+00
## Soil_Type13 1.424435e-01
## Soil_Type14 1.703103e-01
## Soil_Type15 .
## Soil_Type16 1.301072e-01
## Soil_Type17 1.942340e-01
## Soil_Type18 3.958725e-01
## Soil_Type19 -6.423341e-01
## Soil_Type20 -1.098445e+00
## Soil_Type21 -1.700614e+00
## Soil_Type22 -1.833510e+00
## Soil_Type23 -9.409679e-01
## Soil_Type24 -1.519962e+00
## Soil_Type25 -1.621099e+00
## Soil_Type26 -1.004244e+00
## Soil_Type27 -1.337083e+00
## Soil_Type28 4.385897e-02
## Soil_Type29 -4.315370e-01
## Soil_Type30 7.040826e-01
## Soil_Type31 -1.182396e+00
## Soil_Type32 -1.318240e+00
## Soil_Type33 -8.756752e-01
## Soil_Type34 4.861819e-02
## Soil_Type35 3.025471e+00
## Soil_Type36 2.409978e+00
## Soil_Type37 3.970220e+00
## Soil_Type38 2.708672e+00
## Soil_Type39 2.573289e+00
## Soil_Type40 2.926784e+00#coeff corresponding to lamda in sparse matrix formatObserving data
#forest=read.csv("C:/Users/HP/Desktop/lets start/SEM 5/MACHINE LEARNING/forest-cover-type-kernels-only/train.csv")
attach(forest)## The following objects are masked from forest (pos = 11):
##
## Aspect, Cover_Type, Elevation, Hillshade_3pm, Hillshade_9am,
## Hillshade_Noon, Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points,
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology,
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways, Id, Slope, Soil_Type1,
## Soil_Type10, Soil_Type11, Soil_Type12, Soil_Type13,
## Soil_Type14, Soil_Type15, Soil_Type16, Soil_Type17,
## Soil_Type18, Soil_Type19, Soil_Type2, Soil_Type20,
## Soil_Type21, Soil_Type22, Soil_Type23, Soil_Type24,
## Soil_Type25, Soil_Type26, Soil_Type27, Soil_Type28,
## Soil_Type29, Soil_Type3, Soil_Type30, Soil_Type31,
## Soil_Type32, Soil_Type33, Soil_Type34, Soil_Type35,
## Soil_Type36, Soil_Type37, Soil_Type38, Soil_Type39,
## Soil_Type4, Soil_Type40, Soil_Type5, Soil_Type6, Soil_Type7,
## Soil_Type8, Soil_Type9, Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology,
## Wilderness_Area1, Wilderness_Area2, Wilderness_Area3,
## Wilderness_Area4require(tree)## Loading required package: tree#marking cover type as factor
hist(Cover_Type)
forest$Cover_Type=factor(forest$Cover_Type)Decision Trees
tree.forest1=tree(Cover_Type~.-Id-Cover_Type,data=forest,method = "class")
summary(tree.forest1)##
## Classification tree:
## tree(formula = Cover_Type ~ . - Id - Cover_Type, data = forest,
## method = "class")
## Variables actually used in tree construction:
## [1] "Elevation" "Hillshade_9am" "Wilderness_Area1"
## Number of terminal nodes: 8
## Residual mean deviance: 1.874 = 28310 / 15110
## Misclassification error rate: 0.3931 = 5944 / 15120plot(tree.forest1)
text(tree.forest1,pretty = 0)
tree.forest1## node), split, n, deviance, yval, (yprob)
## * denotes terminal node
##
## 1) root 15120 58840.0 1 ( 0.1428571 0.1428571 0.1428571 0.1428571 0.1428571 0.1428571 0.1428571 )
## 2) Elevation < 2679.5 6621 17600.0 4 ( 0.0016614 0.0356442 0.3059961 0.3262347 0.0324724 0.2979912 0.0000000 )
## 4) Elevation < 2393.5 3993 8183.0 4 ( 0.0000000 0.0012522 0.2551966 0.5281743 0.0000000 0.2153769 0.0000000 )
## 8) Hillshade_9am < 191.5 1260 2606.0 3 ( 0.0000000 0.0031746 0.4388889 0.1539683 0.0000000 0.4039683 0.0000000 ) *
## 9) Hillshade_9am > 191.5 2733 4468.0 4 ( 0.0000000 0.0003659 0.1705086 0.7006952 0.0000000 0.1284303 0.0000000 ) *
## 5) Elevation > 2393.5 2628 6567.0 6 ( 0.0041857 0.0878995 0.3831811 0.0194064 0.0818113 0.4235160 0.0000000 )
## 10) Wilderness_Area1 < 0.5 2409 5358.0 6 ( 0.0037360 0.0394355 0.4180158 0.0211706 0.0556247 0.4620174 0.0000000 ) *
## 11) Wilderness_Area1 > 0.5 219 309.5 2 ( 0.0091324 0.6210046 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.3698630 0.0000000 0.0000000 ) *
## 3) Elevation > 2679.5 8499 25820.0 7 ( 0.2528533 0.2263796 0.0157666 0.0000000 0.2288505 0.0220026 0.2541475 )
## 6) Elevation < 3011.5 3979 9769.0 5 ( 0.1113345 0.3174164 0.0336768 0.0000000 0.4888163 0.0469967 0.0017592 )
## 12) Elevation < 2911.5 3014 6878.0 5 ( 0.0593895 0.2435302 0.0444592 0.0000000 0.5895820 0.0620438 0.0009954 ) *
## 13) Elevation > 2911.5 965 1952.0 2 ( 0.2735751 0.5481865 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.1740933 0.0000000 0.0041451 ) *
## 7) Elevation > 3011.5 4520 9060.0 7 ( 0.3774336 0.1462389 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.4763274 )
## 14) Elevation < 3232.5 1883 3271.0 1 ( 0.6155072 0.3000531 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.0844397 ) *
## 15) Elevation > 3232.5 2637 3472.0 7 ( 0.2074327 0.0364050 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.7561623 ) *set.seed(1011)
train=sample(1:nrow(forest),9072)
#train data = 9072 observations
#test data = 6048 observations
tree.forest2=tree(Cover_Type~.-Id-Cover_Type,data=forest,subset = train,method="class")
plot(tree.forest2);text(tree.forest2,pretty = 0)
#as we can observe the length of each node reduces as 60% of data is used
tree.pred=predict(tree.forest2,forest[-train,],type="class")
confusion_matrix=with(forest[-train,],table(tree.pred,Cover_Type))
confusion_matrix## Cover_Type
## tree.pred 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
## 1 479 277 0 0 1 0 65
## 2 109 351 1 0 257 5 4
## 3 0 2 236 98 0 214 0
## 4 0 1 190 767 0 151 0
## 5 35 174 47 0 509 56 0
## 6 3 40 406 13 50 442 0
## 7 231 34 0 0 0 0 800(479+351+236+767+509+442+800)/6048## [1] 0.5925926#acurracy=60.8% which is very better than lda and knn models
#since we are using rpart package which follows recursive partitioning so pruning is not required.
#efforts to prune the above decision tree
cv.forest=cv.tree(tree.forest2,FUN=prune.misclass)
cv.forest## $size
## [1] 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
##
## $dev
## [1] 3758 3779 3883 4101 5321 5321 7729 7729
##
## $k
## [1] -Inf 39 80 221 612 659 1180 1232
##
## $method
## [1] "misclass"
##
## attr(,"class")
## [1] "prune" "tree.sequence"plot(cv.forest)
#best value is equal to size with minimul misclass
prune.forest=prune.misclass(tree.forest2,best=8)
plot(prune.forest);text(prune.forest,pretty=0)
tree.pred2=predict(prune.forest,forest[-train,],type="class")
with(forest[-train,],table(tree.pred2,Cover_Type))## Cover_Type
## tree.pred2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
## 1 479 277 0 0 1 0 65
## 2 109 351 1 0 257 5 4
## 3 0 2 236 98 0 214 0
## 4 0 1 190 767 0 151 0
## 5 35 174 47 0 509 56 0
## 6 3 40 406 13 50 442 0
## 7 231 34 0 0 0 0 800(479+351+236+767+509+442+800)/6048## [1] 0.5925926Random Forest
library(randomForest)## randomForest 4.6-14## Type rfNews() to see new features/changes/bug fixes.set.seed(101)
rf.forest=randomForest(Cover_Type~.,data=forest[train,],ntree=100,proximity=TRUE,method="class")
rf.forest$mtry## [1] 7#no of variables randomly chosen at each split
print(rf.forest)##
## Call:
## randomForest(formula = Cover_Type ~ ., data = forest[train, ], ntree = 100, proximity = TRUE, method = "class")
## Type of random forest: classification
## Number of trees: 100
## No. of variables tried at each split: 7
##
## OOB estimate of error rate: 18.58%
## Confusion matrix:
## 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 class.error
## 1 961 199 1 0 39 6 97 0.26247122
## 2 260 783 36 0 133 55 14 0.38875878
## 3 0 5 850 105 15 305 0 0.33593750
## 4 0 0 15 1242 0 25 0 0.03120125
## 5 4 46 29 0 1236 28 0 0.07967238
## 6 0 8 125 62 15 1082 0 0.16253870
## 7 53 0 1 0 5 0 1232 0.04570101#another way of getting confusion matrix
table(predict(rf.forest),forest[train,]$Cover_Type)##
## 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
## 1 961 260 0 0 4 0 53
## 2 199 783 5 0 46 8 0
## 3 1 36 850 15 29 125 1
## 4 0 0 105 1242 0 62 0
## 5 39 133 15 0 1236 15 5
## 6 6 55 305 25 28 1082 0
## 7 97 14 0 0 0 0 1232(942+835+935++1280+1161+1066+1240)/9072## [1] 0.8222002#82.2% accuracy on training data
plot(rf.forest)
importance(rf.forest)## MeanDecreaseGini
## Id 4.416859e+02
## Elevation 1.395803e+03
## Aspect 2.319367e+02
## Slope 1.710380e+02
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology 3.057131e+02
## Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology 2.651868e+02
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways 5.167154e+02
## Hillshade_9am 2.661816e+02
## Hillshade_Noon 2.132792e+02
## Hillshade_3pm 2.219335e+02
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points 3.527588e+02
## Wilderness_Area1 1.309595e+02
## Wilderness_Area2 2.540040e+01
## Wilderness_Area3 1.015573e+02
## Wilderness_Area4 3.447584e+02
## Soil_Type1 8.728783e+00
## Soil_Type2 3.627978e+01
## Soil_Type3 1.392230e+02
## Soil_Type4 8.545042e+01
## Soil_Type5 6.737497e+00
## Soil_Type6 1.095383e+01
## Soil_Type7 0.000000e+00
## Soil_Type8 6.516158e-02
## Soil_Type9 5.052115e-01
## Soil_Type10 1.892969e+02
## Soil_Type11 1.759171e+01
## Soil_Type12 2.373401e+01
## Soil_Type13 4.827925e+01
## Soil_Type14 4.305534e+00
## Soil_Type15 0.000000e+00
## Soil_Type16 5.942806e+00
## Soil_Type17 4.072987e+01
## Soil_Type18 3.361469e+00
## Soil_Type19 1.900844e+00
## Soil_Type20 1.091305e+01
## Soil_Type21 1.540813e+00
## Soil_Type22 3.602636e+01
## Soil_Type23 3.609136e+01
## Soil_Type24 1.805332e+01
## Soil_Type25 1.831547e-01
## Soil_Type26 3.836099e+00
## Soil_Type27 7.906249e-01
## Soil_Type28 3.868087e-01
## Soil_Type29 3.705483e+01
## Soil_Type30 5.742820e+01
## Soil_Type31 1.504576e+01
## Soil_Type32 3.336511e+01
## Soil_Type33 2.394704e+01
## Soil_Type34 1.594434e+00
## Soil_Type35 1.341075e+01
## Soil_Type36 4.129213e-01
## Soil_Type37 2.270535e+00
## Soil_Type38 1.269178e+02
## Soil_Type39 1.290454e+02
## Soil_Type40 6.908205e+01varImpPlot(rf.forest)
#randomforest for testing data
pred.forest=predict(rf.forest,newdata = forest[-train])
table(pred.forest,forest$Cover_Type)##
## pred.forest 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
## 1 1885 168 0 0 2 0 29
## 2 144 1793 0 0 25 1 1
## 3 2 21 1686 16 27 107 1
## 4 0 0 118 2106 0 60 0
## 5 30 114 7 0 2087 8 2
## 6 5 57 349 38 19 1984 0
## 7 94 7 0 0 0 0 2127(1869+1800+1707+2113+2089+1988+2125)/15120## [1] 0.9054894#this model gives 90.77% accuracy for testing data
require(RColorBrewer)## Loading required package: RColorBrewerplot(margin(rf.forest,forest$Cover_Type))
#now we will try to tune random forest
tune.rf=tuneRF(forest[,-5],forest[,5],stepFactor = 0.5)## mtry = 18 OOB error = 1.286126
## Searching left ...
## mtry = 36 OOB error = 0.4515678
## 0.648893 0.05## Warning in randomForest.default(x, y, mtry = mtryCur, ntree = ntreeTry, :
## invalid mtry: reset to within valid range## mtry = 72 OOB error = 0.3787973
## 0.1611507 0.05## Warning in randomForest.default(x, y, mtry = mtryCur, ntree = ntreeTry, :
## invalid mtry: reset to within valid range## mtry = 144 OOB error = 0.4196375
## -0.1078153 0.05
## Searching right ...
## mtry = 9 OOB error = 4.225733
## -10.15566 0.05
Bagging ========
forest.test=forest[-train,"Cover_Type"]
set.seed(1)
bag.forest=randomForest(Cover_Type~.,data=forest,subset=train,mtry=13,importance=TRUE)
bag.forest##
## Call:
## randomForest(formula = Cover_Type ~ ., data = forest, mtry = 13, importance = TRUE, subset = train)
## Type of random forest: classification
## Number of trees: 500
## No. of variables tried at each split: 13
##
## OOB estimate of error rate: 13.94%
## Confusion matrix:
## 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 class.error
## 1 1005 168 1 0 30 6 93 0.22870299
## 2 231 858 31 0 108 41 12 0.33021077
## 3 0 5 1034 62 19 160 0 0.19218750
## 4 0 0 23 1246 0 13 0 0.02808112
## 5 5 23 20 0 1282 13 0 0.04542070
## 6 0 8 108 35 11 1130 0 0.12538700
## 7 37 0 0 0 2 0 1252 0.03020914(1001+858+1032+1242+1276+1145+1254)/9072## [1] 0.8606702#86.24%accuracy for training data
par(mfrow=c(1,2))
yhat.bag = predict(bag.forest,newdata=forest[-train,])
plot(yhat.bag, forest.test)
abline(0,1)
#mean((yhat.bag-forest.test)^2)
bag.forest=randomForest(Cover_Type~.,data=forest,subset=train,mtry=13,ntree=25)
yhat.bag = predict(bag.forest,newdata=forest[-train,])
plot(yhat.bag, forest.test)
abline(0,1)
#a very slight difference can be see in testing vs training prediction
par(mfrow=c(1,1))Boosting
library(gbm)## Loaded gbm 2.1.5forest.test=forest[-train,"Cover_Type"]
boost.forest=gbm(Cover_Type~.-Id-Cover_Type,data=forest[train,],distribution="gaussian",n.trees=1000,shrinkage=0.01,interaction.depth=4)## Warning in gbm.fit(x = x, y = y, offset = offset, distribution =
## distribution, : variable 21: Soil_Type7 has no variation.## Warning in gbm.fit(x = x, y = y, offset = offset, distribution =
## distribution, : variable 29: Soil_Type15 has no variation.summary(boost.forest)
## var
## Elevation Elevation
## Soil_Type39 Soil_Type39
## Soil_Type38 Soil_Type38
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology
## Hillshade_3pm Hillshade_3pm
## Soil_Type10 Soil_Type10
## Soil_Type32 Soil_Type32
## Soil_Type12 Soil_Type12
## Wilderness_Area3 Wilderness_Area3
## Soil_Type35 Soil_Type35
## Wilderness_Area1 Wilderness_Area1
## Soil_Type22 Soil_Type22
## Soil_Type13 Soil_Type13
## Hillshade_9am Hillshade_9am
## Wilderness_Area2 Wilderness_Area2
## Soil_Type40 Soil_Type40
## Soil_Type30 Soil_Type30
## Hillshade_Noon Hillshade_Noon
## Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology
## Aspect Aspect
## Slope Slope
## Soil_Type24 Soil_Type24
## Soil_Type4 Soil_Type4
## Soil_Type33 Soil_Type33
## Soil_Type31 Soil_Type31
## Soil_Type3 Soil_Type3
## Soil_Type23 Soil_Type23
## Soil_Type17 Soil_Type17
## Soil_Type5 Soil_Type5
## Soil_Type20 Soil_Type20
## Soil_Type29 Soil_Type29
## Soil_Type18 Soil_Type18
## Soil_Type34 Soil_Type34
## Soil_Type26 Soil_Type26
## Wilderness_Area4 Wilderness_Area4
## Soil_Type1 Soil_Type1
## Soil_Type2 Soil_Type2
## Soil_Type6 Soil_Type6
## Soil_Type7 Soil_Type7
## Soil_Type8 Soil_Type8
## Soil_Type9 Soil_Type9
## Soil_Type11 Soil_Type11
## Soil_Type14 Soil_Type14
## Soil_Type15 Soil_Type15
## Soil_Type16 Soil_Type16
## Soil_Type19 Soil_Type19
## Soil_Type21 Soil_Type21
## Soil_Type25 Soil_Type25
## Soil_Type27 Soil_Type27
## Soil_Type28 Soil_Type28
## Soil_Type36 Soil_Type36
## Soil_Type37 Soil_Type37
## rel.inf
## Elevation 61.592756697
## Soil_Type39 7.249251871
## Soil_Type38 4.501050960
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways 4.244718528
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points 3.420251019
## Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology 2.266116135
## Hillshade_3pm 1.767631205
## Soil_Type10 1.654819030
## Soil_Type32 1.476525043
## Soil_Type12 1.252724373
## Wilderness_Area3 1.094136166
## Soil_Type35 0.979445965
## Wilderness_Area1 0.887234370
## Soil_Type22 0.874309677
## Soil_Type13 0.794795321
## Hillshade_9am 0.765682699
## Wilderness_Area2 0.701795854
## Soil_Type40 0.609587046
## Soil_Type30 0.583443313
## Hillshade_Noon 0.551885453
## Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology 0.432349452
## Aspect 0.421021505
## Slope 0.410594955
## Soil_Type24 0.302835879
## Soil_Type4 0.276606263
## Soil_Type33 0.224475819
## Soil_Type31 0.132112604
## Soil_Type3 0.112791985
## Soil_Type23 0.106023168
## Soil_Type17 0.096146490
## Soil_Type5 0.067630062
## Soil_Type20 0.052811328
## Soil_Type29 0.046853711
## Soil_Type18 0.040495450
## Soil_Type34 0.004838536
## Soil_Type26 0.004252070
## Wilderness_Area4 0.000000000
## Soil_Type1 0.000000000
## Soil_Type2 0.000000000
## Soil_Type6 0.000000000
## Soil_Type7 0.000000000
## Soil_Type8 0.000000000
## Soil_Type9 0.000000000
## Soil_Type11 0.000000000
## Soil_Type14 0.000000000
## Soil_Type15 0.000000000
## Soil_Type16 0.000000000
## Soil_Type19 0.000000000
## Soil_Type21 0.000000000
## Soil_Type25 0.000000000
## Soil_Type27 0.000000000
## Soil_Type28 0.000000000
## Soil_Type36 0.000000000
## Soil_Type37 0.000000000plot(boost.forest,i="Elevation")
plot(boost.forest,i="Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways")
plot(boost.forest,i="Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points")
n.tree=seq(from=100,to=10000,by=100)
forest$Cover_Type=as.numeric(forest$Cover_Type)
pre=predict(boost.forest,newdata=forest[-train,],n.trees=n.tree)## Warning in predict.gbm(boost.forest, newdata = forest[-train, ], n.trees =
## n.tree): Number of trees not specified or exceeded number fit so far. Using
## 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
## 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
## 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
## 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
## 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
## 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
## 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000.dim(pre)## [1] 6048 100berr=with(forest[-train,],apply(I(pre-Cover_Type)^2,2,mean))
plot(n.tree,berr,pch=19,ylab="Mean Squared Error",xlab = "#trees",main="Boosting test error")
#abline(h=min(boost.forest$train.error),col="red",pch=1)SVM
#forest=na.omit(forest)
forest$Cover_Type=factor(forest$Cover_Type)
library(e1071)
forest=forest[1:1500,2:16]
Cover_Type=factor(Cover_Type)
training=forest[451:1500,]
testing=forest[1:450,]
#we have divided over data in two parts 70:30 ratio as training and testing data
#since its raw data it doesnt matter how we pich the two sets
x.training=rbind(subset(training,select = -Cover_Type))
y.training=training$Cover_Type
x.testing=rbind(subset(testing,select = -Cover_Type))
y.testing=testing$Cover_Type
plot(x.training,col=y.training,pch=19)
dat=data.frame(x=x.training,y=as.factor(y.training))
svmfit=svm(y~.,data=dat,kernel="radial",cost=10,gamma=1,scale=TRUE)## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.make.graid=function(x,n=75){
grange=apply(x,2,range)
X1=seq(from=grange[1,1],to=grange[2,1],length=n)
X2=seq(from=grange[1,2],to=grange[2,2],length=n)
expand.grid(x1=X1,x2=X2)
}
plot(svmfit,dat,x.Elevation~x.Aspect)
plot(svmfit,dat,x.Elevation~x.Slope)
plot(svmfit,dat,x.Elevation~x.Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology)
plot(svmfit,dat,x.Elevation~x.Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways)
plot(svmfit,dat,x.Elevation~x.Hillshade_9am)
summary(svmfit)##
## Call:
## svm(formula = y ~ ., data = dat, kernel = "radial", cost = 10,
## gamma = 1, scale = TRUE)
##
##
## Parameters:
## SVM-Type: C-classification
## SVM-Kernel: radial
## cost: 10
##
## Number of Support Vectors: 1050
##
## ( 497 273 280 )
##
##
## Number of Classes: 3
##
## Levels:
## 1 2 3 4 5 6 7#we will use 10 fold cross-validation
set.seed(1)
train=sample(200,100)
tune.out=tune(svm,y~.,data=dat[train,],kernel="radial",ranges=list(cost=c(.001,.01,.1,1,5,10,100),gamma=c(0.5,1,2,3,4)))## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.
## Warning in svm.default(x, y, scale = scale, ..., na.action = na.action):
## Variable(s) 'x.Wilderness_Area1' and 'x.Wilderness_Area2' and
## 'x.Wilderness_Area3' and 'x.Wilderness_Area4' constant. Cannot scale data.summary(tune.out)##
## Parameter tuning of 'svm':
##
## - sampling method: 10-fold cross validation
##
## - best parameters:
## cost gamma
## 0.001 0.5
##
## - best performance: 0.34
##
## - Detailed performance results:
## cost gamma error dispersion
## 1 1e-03 0.5 0.34 0.1264911
## 2 1e-02 0.5 0.34 0.1264911
## 3 1e-01 0.5 0.34 0.1264911
## 4 1e+00 0.5 0.34 0.1264911
## 5 5e+00 0.5 0.34 0.1264911
## 6 1e+01 0.5 0.34 0.1264911
## 7 1e+02 0.5 0.34 0.1264911
## 8 1e-03 1.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 9 1e-02 1.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 10 1e-01 1.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 11 1e+00 1.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 12 5e+00 1.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 13 1e+01 1.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 14 1e+02 1.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 15 1e-03 2.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 16 1e-02 2.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 17 1e-01 2.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 18 1e+00 2.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 19 5e+00 2.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 20 1e+01 2.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 21 1e+02 2.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 22 1e-03 3.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 23 1e-02 3.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 24 1e-01 3.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 25 1e+00 3.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 26 5e+00 3.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 27 1e+01 3.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 28 1e+02 3.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 29 1e-03 4.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 30 1e-02 4.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 31 1e-01 4.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 32 1e+00 4.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 33 5e+00 4.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 34 1e+01 4.0 0.34 0.1264911
## 35 1e+02 4.0 0.34 0.1264911bestmodel=tune.out$best.model
summary(bestmodel)##
## Call:
## best.tune(method = svm, train.x = y ~ ., data = dat[train, ],
## ranges = list(cost = c(0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 5, 10, 100),
## gamma = c(0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4)), kernel = "radial")
##
##
## Parameters:
## SVM-Type: C-classification
## SVM-Kernel: radial
## cost: 0.001
##
## Number of Support Vectors: 70
##
## ( 36 16 18 )
##
##
## Number of Classes: 3
##
## Levels:
## 1 2 3 4 5 6 7#cost=0.01,gamma=1
#prediction using best model
require(pROC)## Loading required package: pROC## Type 'citation("pROC")' for a citation.##
## Attaching package: 'pROC'## The following object is masked from 'package:glmnet':
##
## auc## The following objects are masked from 'package:stats':
##
## cov, smooth, varrequire(caret)## Loading required package: caret## Loading required package: lattice##
## Attaching package: 'lattice'## The following object is masked from 'package:boot':
##
## melanoma## Loading required package: ggplot2##
## Attaching package: 'ggplot2'## The following object is masked _by_ '.GlobalEnv':
##
## alpha## The following object is masked from 'package:randomForest':
##
## margintable(true=dat[-train,"y"], pred=predict(tune.out$best.model,newdata=dat[-train,]))## pred
## true 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
## 1 0 257 0 0 0 0 0
## 2 0 431 0 0 0 0 0
## 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
## 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
## 5 0 262 0 0 0 0 0
## 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
## 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0require(RROC)## Loading required package: RROC## Warning in library(package, lib.loc = lib.loc, character.only = TRUE,
## logical.return = TRUE, : there is no package called 'RROC'svmPrediction <- predict(tune.out$best.model, dat)
svmPredictionprob <- predict(tune.out$best.model, dat, type='prob')
svmConfMat <- confusionMatrix(svmPrediction, dat[,"y"])
svmConfMat## Confusion Matrix and Statistics
##
## Reference
## Prediction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
## 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
## 2 273 497 0 0 280 0 0
## 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
## 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
## 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
## 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
## 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
##
## Overall Statistics
##
## Accuracy : 0.4733
## 95% CI : (0.4428, 0.504)
## No Information Rate : 0.4733
## P-Value [Acc > NIR] : 0.5121
##
## Kappa : 0
##
## Mcnemar's Test P-Value : NA
##
## Statistics by Class:
##
## Class: 1 Class: 2 Class: 3 Class: 4 Class: 5 Class: 6
## Sensitivity 0.00 1.0000 NA NA 0.0000 NA
## Specificity 1.00 0.0000 1 1 1.0000 1
## Pos Pred Value NaN 0.4733 NA NA NaN NA
## Neg Pred Value 0.74 NaN NA NA 0.7333 NA
## Prevalence 0.26 0.4733 0 0 0.2667 0
## Detection Rate 0.00 0.4733 0 0 0.0000 0
## Detection Prevalence 0.00 1.0000 0 0 0.0000 0
## Balanced Accuracy 0.50 0.5000 NA NA 0.5000 NA
## Class: 7
## Sensitivity NA
## Specificity 1
## Pos Pred Value NA
## Neg Pred Value NA
## Prevalence 0
## Detection Rate 0
## Detection Prevalence 0
## Balanced Accuracy NApar(mfrow=c(1,1))
#ROC Curve
AUC = list()
Accuracy = list()
row.names <- names(Accuracy)
col.names <- c("AUC", "Accuracy")
Accuracy$svm <- svmConfMat$overall['Accuracy']
Accuracy$svm## Accuracy
## 0.4733333AUC$svm <- multiclass.roc(as.numeric(dat$y),as.numeric(as.matrix((svmPredictionprob))),percent = FALSE )$auc## Setting direction: controls < cases## Setting direction: controls < cases
## Setting direction: controls < casesAUC$svm## Multi-class area under the curve: 0.5mul=multiclass.roc(as.numeric(dat$y),as.numeric(as.matrix((svmPredictionprob))),percent = FALSE )## Setting direction: controls < cases
## Setting direction: controls < cases
## Setting direction: controls < casessummary(mul)## Length Class Mode
## response 1050 -none- numeric
## predictor 1050 -none- numeric
## percent 1 -none- logical
## levels 3 -none- character
## rocs 3 -none- list
## auc 1 multiclass.auc numeric
## call 4 -none- callsince this data has 7 different classifiers it was very difficult to apply support vector machines(47.33% accuracy) and show multiclass roc curve and while using Random Forest for thi data set it gives 90.7% accuracy for test data so for FOREST COVER TYPE DATASET, Random Forest model suits best.